External loads include which of the following?

• A. Axial
• B. Eccentric
• C. Torsional
• D. All of the above

Answer: (D)

External loads are forces applied to a structure from outside, and they can act in different ways on a member. An axial load runs along the length of the member, producing uniform tension or compression. If the load is off-center, it becomes eccentric, creating bending moments that bend and shear the member. A torsional load twists the member around its axis, causing twisting shear. In real-world scenarios, loads can have axial, eccentric, and torsional components simultaneously, so external loads include all of these possibilities. Therefore, the correct understanding is that external loads include axial, eccentric, and torsional forces.